| English | Welsh | Middle Welsh | Old Welsh | Cumbric | Cornish | Breton | Irish Gaelic | Scottish Gaelic |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| and | a / ac | a / ac | a / ac | a / ac | ha / hag | ha / hag | agus (also shortened to 's before vowels: é is í = he and she) | agus (also 's before vowels) |
| or | neu | neu | neu | neu | po | pe | nó (nó = or; 'nó' does not trigger mutation) | no / air neo (no = or; air neo = or else) |
| but | ond | ond | ond | ond | mes | met | ach (ach = but/except; does not trigger mutation) | ach (ach = but; no mutation) |
| because | achos / oherwydd | achos / oherwydd | ohonis | ohonis | rag / drefen | rak / abalamour ma | toisc / mar (toisc go + dependent form; mar = as/because + dependent) | oir / a chionn 's (oir = for/because; a chionn 's gu = because + dependent) |
| if | os / pe | os / pe | od | od | mar / mars | ma / mar | má (+ independent: 'má tá' = if it is) / dá (+ dependent: 'dá mbeadh' = if there were) — the two Irish 'if' conjunctions trigger different verb forms | ma (+ independent) / nan / nam (+ dependent: 'nam biodh' = if there were) |
| when | pan | pan | pan | pan | pan | pa / pan | nuair (+ independent: 'nuair a tháinig sé' = when he came) | nuair (nuair a thàinig e = when he came — 'a' triggers lenition) |
| although | er | er | cyd | cyd | kynth | kement ha | cé go (+ dependent: 'cé go raibh sé ann' = although he was there) | ged a (+ dependent: 'ged a bha e ann' = although he was there) |
| so / therefore | felly / am hynny | felly / am hynny | felli | felli | ytho | setu / neuze | mar sin / dá bhrí sin (mar sin = so/thus; dá bhrí sin = therefore/for that reason) | mar sin / uime sin (mar sin = so/thus; uime sin = for that reason) |
| that | bod (gyda ferf) / i + soft | bod (gyda ferf) / i + soft | y | y | fatell / dell | ma | go (+ eclipsis for indicative: 'go bhfuil' = that … is) / gur (before past tense: 'gur tháinig' = that … came) | gu / gun (+ dependent: 'gu bheil' = that … is; 'gun tàinig' = that … came) |
| while | tra / while | tra / while | tra | tra | hag esa | en ur | fad is / agus (fad is = while/as long as; 'agus é ag obair' = while he was working — verbal noun construction) | fhad 's a (fhad 's a bha e ag obair = while he was working) |
| until | tan / nes | tan / nes | hyd | hyd | bys pan | betek | go dtí go (+ dependent: 'go dtí go dtiocfaidh sé' = until he comes; eclipsis on verb) | gus an (+ dependent: 'gus an tig e' = until he comes) |
| unless | oni bai | oni bai | oni | oni | marnas | nemet ma | mura (+ dependent: 'mura dtiocfaidh sé' = unless he comes; eclipsis on verb) | mura (+ dependent: 'mura tig e' = unless he comes) |
The full training programme — row-by-row quizzes, section quizzes with an 80% pass threshold, and progress tracking — is available on Polyglot™, the master platform covering all 21 languages simultaneously.
For Celtic-focused learners: Once on Polyglot™, use the Column Order modal to bring Welsh, Old Welsh, Revitalised Cumbric, Cornish, Breton, Irish Gaelic, and Scottish Gaelic to the front. The triangulation method — seeing all seven Celtic languages side by side — makes patterns immediately visible.
Pronunciation: Use ChatGPT in voice mode or Google Gemini alongside each study session. Read each row aloud and ask for pronunciation feedback — this is an integral part of the recommended learning process.
Rows per Day: Use the 📅 button on Polyglot™ to set your daily target. One row per day is a sustainable pace; at this rate every row you study has already been reviewed by the Penrith Beacon Communications | PBC team.